Ancient Roman Architecture
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By Dion Protani
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Latest update: 17 December 2021
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What we nowadays classify as Ancient Roman Architecture is unique in so much as it has a clearly-defined timescale. It begins with the inception of the Roman Republic in 509 BC and ends with the establishment of the Byzantine Empire in 330 BC.
Heavily influenced by the Greeks and Etruscans, Ancient Roman Architecture moved the theories of its forerunners into much more advanced areas with the discovery of new materials, construction techniques and use of clever architectural features. Development of the style accelerated particularly with the advent of the Empire in 27 BC and the Roman Architectural Revolution. |
The Colosseum, Rome
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Related links
Ancient Roman Architecture in brief
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Time period:
509 BC - 330 AD Influences: Etruscans, Classical Greek architecture Characteristics/innovations: Domes, arches, vaulted roofs Famous buildings in Italy: Colosseum, Pantheon, Verona Arena |
Archaeological sites:
Pompeii, Herculaneum, Villa Adriana, Ostia Antica Materials: Concrete, limestone, brick, marble Building types: Amphitheatres, aqueducts, basilicas, bath houses, temples Famous architect: Vitruvius |
Time period
509 BC - 330 AD
The classification of Ancient Roman Architecture begins with the inception of the Roman Republic in 509 BC and ends in 330 AD with the establishment of the Byzantine Empire. From 330 AD, a new style called Italian Byzantine architecture was established and went through several phases before the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 and the fall of the Byzantine Empire.
509 BC - 330 AD
The classification of Ancient Roman Architecture begins with the inception of the Roman Republic in 509 BC and ends in 330 AD with the establishment of the Byzantine Empire. From 330 AD, a new style called Italian Byzantine architecture was established and went through several phases before the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 and the fall of the Byzantine Empire.
Influences
Ancient Roman architecture was heavily influenced by both the Etruscan and Greek civilisations that were its forebears on the Italian Peninsula. In fact it was the Romans who saw to it that both civilisations faded into history as they conquered them both. The Etruscans were based around central and northern Italy; particularly around what we now call Tuscany, Umbria and Lazio, while the Greeks dominated southern Italy to the point where the whole area was known as Magna Graecia or Greater Greece.
The Romans emerged as the dominant force on the peninsula and eventually established the Roman Republic in 509 BC. Within their architecture they began to use new features such as domes, arches and vaulted roofs that hitherto hadn't been seen on such a grand scale.
Ancient Roman architecture was heavily influenced by both the Etruscan and Greek civilisations that were its forebears on the Italian Peninsula. In fact it was the Romans who saw to it that both civilisations faded into history as they conquered them both. The Etruscans were based around central and northern Italy; particularly around what we now call Tuscany, Umbria and Lazio, while the Greeks dominated southern Italy to the point where the whole area was known as Magna Graecia or Greater Greece.
The Romans emerged as the dominant force on the peninsula and eventually established the Roman Republic in 509 BC. Within their architecture they began to use new features such as domes, arches and vaulted roofs that hitherto hadn't been seen on such a grand scale.
Characteristics and innovations of Ancient Roman architecture
Arches
One of the greatest innovations of the Roman civilisation was the use in architecture of the arch. One of the key features of Classical Greek architecture in particular was the use of the trabeated system of posts and lintels whereby a straight beam would be supported by posts or columns. Although the Romans didn't exactly invent the arch, they developed its use on a much greater scale and discovered that it could be used to create much wider or longer structures, able to support greater weights with fewer supporting columns.
The semi-circular Roman arch was a key component in their architecture and allowed them to build super-structures such as aqueducts that could transport fresh water to their cities from great distances. The semi-circular arches were also used to great effect in bridges, many of which are still standing to this day. It has been speculated upon that the importance of the arch in Roman architecture led to the profusion of triumphal arches, not only built to commemorate military victories or the prowess of a particular leader, but to showcase the advanced building technique which at that stage was unique to their civilisation and produced in awe-inspiring size.
Vaulted roofs
The use of the arch had wide-ranging significance for Roman architecture as it allowed them to develop other features such as vaulted roofs that hadn't previously been seen. Barrel vaults, where a long, continuous arch became the ceiling or groin vaults which could be used either in isolation or in a series, meant that roofs could become not just larger, but more aesthetically-pleasing. At a time where engineering ideas were flourishing like never before, variations on the roofs saw the use of coffered vaults with one of the most notable examples being the interior ceiling of the Pantheon, still one of the most beautiful buildings in Rome.
Domes
Even more notable however than the Pantheon's coffered vault is the dome that it's an integral part of. Although it was built almost two thousand years ago in the 2nd century AD, it's staggering to think that the dome of the Pantheon is still the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome in the world. With the use of domes, the Romans were able to create imposing public buildings such as bath houses and temples that provided a sense of awe and power. Domes later became an integral part of church-building during the Byzantine period; indeed the English word dome is a derivative of the Italian word for cathedral: duomo.
Columns
Although the Romans weren't the first civilisation to use columns; they were a prominent feature in both Etruscan and Greek architecture, they did still develop their use and create new styles of them. Ancient Greek architecture saw the use of three types of column which represented different orders known as Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, whereast the Romans introduced their own version of the Doric column along with the Tuscan column and the Composite column which combined the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
Triangular pediments
Another key feature of Greek and Etruscan architecture was a mainstay of Ancient Roman architecture. The triangular pediments that sit above columns are one of the most prominent features in the Ancient Greek architecture that we can still see today, particularly so in temples such as those at Paestum in Campania or Agrigento in Sicily. The Romans also used them to great effect in their own temples and other public buildings, as well as in smaller villas. One of the greatest accolades that can be laid at the feet of the triangular pediments is that they became a key feature in both Renaissance architecture and again, much later with the advent of Neoclassicism.
One of the greatest innovations of the Roman civilisation was the use in architecture of the arch. One of the key features of Classical Greek architecture in particular was the use of the trabeated system of posts and lintels whereby a straight beam would be supported by posts or columns. Although the Romans didn't exactly invent the arch, they developed its use on a much greater scale and discovered that it could be used to create much wider or longer structures, able to support greater weights with fewer supporting columns.
The semi-circular Roman arch was a key component in their architecture and allowed them to build super-structures such as aqueducts that could transport fresh water to their cities from great distances. The semi-circular arches were also used to great effect in bridges, many of which are still standing to this day. It has been speculated upon that the importance of the arch in Roman architecture led to the profusion of triumphal arches, not only built to commemorate military victories or the prowess of a particular leader, but to showcase the advanced building technique which at that stage was unique to their civilisation and produced in awe-inspiring size.
Vaulted roofs
The use of the arch had wide-ranging significance for Roman architecture as it allowed them to develop other features such as vaulted roofs that hadn't previously been seen. Barrel vaults, where a long, continuous arch became the ceiling or groin vaults which could be used either in isolation or in a series, meant that roofs could become not just larger, but more aesthetically-pleasing. At a time where engineering ideas were flourishing like never before, variations on the roofs saw the use of coffered vaults with one of the most notable examples being the interior ceiling of the Pantheon, still one of the most beautiful buildings in Rome.
Domes
Even more notable however than the Pantheon's coffered vault is the dome that it's an integral part of. Although it was built almost two thousand years ago in the 2nd century AD, it's staggering to think that the dome of the Pantheon is still the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome in the world. With the use of domes, the Romans were able to create imposing public buildings such as bath houses and temples that provided a sense of awe and power. Domes later became an integral part of church-building during the Byzantine period; indeed the English word dome is a derivative of the Italian word for cathedral: duomo.
Columns
Although the Romans weren't the first civilisation to use columns; they were a prominent feature in both Etruscan and Greek architecture, they did still develop their use and create new styles of them. Ancient Greek architecture saw the use of three types of column which represented different orders known as Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, whereast the Romans introduced their own version of the Doric column along with the Tuscan column and the Composite column which combined the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
Triangular pediments
Another key feature of Greek and Etruscan architecture was a mainstay of Ancient Roman architecture. The triangular pediments that sit above columns are one of the most prominent features in the Ancient Greek architecture that we can still see today, particularly so in temples such as those at Paestum in Campania or Agrigento in Sicily. The Romans also used them to great effect in their own temples and other public buildings, as well as in smaller villas. One of the greatest accolades that can be laid at the feet of the triangular pediments is that they became a key feature in both Renaissance architecture and again, much later with the advent of Neoclassicism.
Materials
Underpinning the success of Ancient Roman architecture was the use of concrete, a new material that allowed for a fresh range of structural shapes, away from the restrictions of carved stone or wood. Concrete, or to be more precise, Roman Concrete (opus caementicium), meant that more interesting or aesthetically pleasing designs were possible, such as the dome. During the early days of the Roman Empire, the use of concrete along with the new architectural and engineering techniques such as arches and vaults, saw an explosion of construction during a period known as the Roman Architectural Revolution, also referred to as the Concrete Revolution.
The marble quarries of Carrara in Tuscany were heavily used in the time of the first Emperor Augustus who famously quipped that he "found Rome built of brick and left it made of marble". That's not to say that brick wasn't still heavily used: in fact it was usually the main construction material with marble added externally for decorative effect. Limestone was also one of the integral materials in Ancient Roman architecture as can be seen with the Colosseum which is almost entirely made from it.
Underpinning the success of Ancient Roman architecture was the use of concrete, a new material that allowed for a fresh range of structural shapes, away from the restrictions of carved stone or wood. Concrete, or to be more precise, Roman Concrete (opus caementicium), meant that more interesting or aesthetically pleasing designs were possible, such as the dome. During the early days of the Roman Empire, the use of concrete along with the new architectural and engineering techniques such as arches and vaults, saw an explosion of construction during a period known as the Roman Architectural Revolution, also referred to as the Concrete Revolution.
The marble quarries of Carrara in Tuscany were heavily used in the time of the first Emperor Augustus who famously quipped that he "found Rome built of brick and left it made of marble". That's not to say that brick wasn't still heavily used: in fact it was usually the main construction material with marble added externally for decorative effect. Limestone was also one of the integral materials in Ancient Roman architecture as can be seen with the Colosseum which is almost entirely made from it.
Building types
Perhaps more than any other civilisation before them, the Romans were prolific builders; much of the infrastructure we see today in Western Europe was put there by the Romans and their ideas developed later. There are still many Roman roads in use across the world and in Rome itself, a number of Roman bridges that you can still cross today such as the beautiful Ponte Sant'Angelo which leads up to the eponymous fortress: Castel Sant'Angelo, itself one of the most impressive buildings from the period.
One of the funniest and most-often quoted lines in the Monty Python film: The Life of Brian (1979) is "what have the Romans ever done for us?", and it is the comical answer to this question which merely scratches at the surface of their engineering achievements, with the likes of aqueducts, sanitation, roads, irrigation, medicine and education all getting a mention. Jokes aside, the list of Roman construction feats in Italy alone is an astonishingly long list which is itself put into shade in comparison to what can be found in other parts of the world.
Amphitheatres
Apartments
Aqueducts
Basilicas
Bath houses
Bridges
Defensive walls
Fortresses
Forums
Mausoleums
Obelisks
Temples
Theatres
Triumphal arches
Villas
Perhaps more than any other civilisation before them, the Romans were prolific builders; much of the infrastructure we see today in Western Europe was put there by the Romans and their ideas developed later. There are still many Roman roads in use across the world and in Rome itself, a number of Roman bridges that you can still cross today such as the beautiful Ponte Sant'Angelo which leads up to the eponymous fortress: Castel Sant'Angelo, itself one of the most impressive buildings from the period.
One of the funniest and most-often quoted lines in the Monty Python film: The Life of Brian (1979) is "what have the Romans ever done for us?", and it is the comical answer to this question which merely scratches at the surface of their engineering achievements, with the likes of aqueducts, sanitation, roads, irrigation, medicine and education all getting a mention. Jokes aside, the list of Roman construction feats in Italy alone is an astonishingly long list which is itself put into shade in comparison to what can be found in other parts of the world.
Amphitheatres
Apartments
Aqueducts
Basilicas
Bath houses
Bridges
Defensive walls
Fortresses
Forums
Mausoleums
Obelisks
Temples
Theatres
Triumphal arches
Villas
Famous Roman buildings in Italy
To list every one of the most famous Roman buildings still standing in Italy would require an enormous page but some of the most notable structures that are still visitable to this day can be found below. The majority can be found within Rome itself but wherever you go in Italy, you're never too far from an amazing Roman monument.
Rome
Ara Pacis
Arch of Constantine
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
Baths of Caracalla
Castel Sant'Angelo
Circus Maximus
Columns of San Lorenzo
Colosseum
Mausoleum of Augustus
Milvian Bridge
Pantheon
Ponte Fabricio
Ponte Sant'Angelo
Pyramid of Cestius
Roman Forum
Campania
Campano Amphitheatre
Flavian Amphitheatre of Pozzuoli
Trajan's Arch (Benevento)
Villa Oplontis
Emilia Romagna
Arch of Augustus (Rimini)
Ponte di Tiberio (Rimini)
Piedmont
Palatine Towers (Turin)
Puglia
Roman Amphitheatre of Lecce
Sicily
Roman Amphitheatre of Syracuse
Villa Romana del Casale
Umbria
Roman Theatre of Spoleto
Valle d'Aosta
Arch of Augustus (Aosta)
Roman Theatre of Aosta
Verona
Ponte Pietra
Roman Theatre of Verona
Verona Arena
Ara Pacis
Arch of Constantine
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
Baths of Caracalla
Castel Sant'Angelo
Circus Maximus
Columns of San Lorenzo
Colosseum
Mausoleum of Augustus
Milvian Bridge
Pantheon
Ponte Fabricio
Ponte Sant'Angelo
Pyramid of Cestius
Roman Forum
Campania
Campano Amphitheatre
Flavian Amphitheatre of Pozzuoli
Trajan's Arch (Benevento)
Villa Oplontis
Emilia Romagna
Arch of Augustus (Rimini)
Ponte di Tiberio (Rimini)
Piedmont
Palatine Towers (Turin)
Puglia
Roman Amphitheatre of Lecce
Sicily
Roman Amphitheatre of Syracuse
Villa Romana del Casale
Umbria
Roman Theatre of Spoleto
Valle d'Aosta
Arch of Augustus (Aosta)
Roman Theatre of Aosta
Verona
Ponte Pietra
Roman Theatre of Verona
Verona Arena
Roman archaeological sites in Italy
Much of what we know today about Ancient Roman architecture comes from important archaeological sites in Italy and the rest of the former Roman Empire. The likes of Pompeii and Herculaneum which were essentially frozen in time by the ash cloud of Mount Vesuvius' eruption in 79 AD provide a tangible snapshot of Roman life and architecture. Ostia Antica was once the port of Rome itself and is another of the best preserved archaeological sites from the period which provides remarkable insight into how Roman cities operated.
Of an altogether different type is the expansive site of Villa Adriana: not a city, but the ruins of the palace of the emperor Hadrian who was one of the most influential figures in the realm of Roman architecture with a large legacy of buildings attributed to his efforts.
Aquileia
Baia Archaeological Park
Herculaneum
Ostia Antica
Pompeii
Saepinum
Villa Adriana
Much of what we know today about Ancient Roman architecture comes from important archaeological sites in Italy and the rest of the former Roman Empire. The likes of Pompeii and Herculaneum which were essentially frozen in time by the ash cloud of Mount Vesuvius' eruption in 79 AD provide a tangible snapshot of Roman life and architecture. Ostia Antica was once the port of Rome itself and is another of the best preserved archaeological sites from the period which provides remarkable insight into how Roman cities operated.
Of an altogether different type is the expansive site of Villa Adriana: not a city, but the ruins of the palace of the emperor Hadrian who was one of the most influential figures in the realm of Roman architecture with a large legacy of buildings attributed to his efforts.
Aquileia
Baia Archaeological Park
Herculaneum
Ostia Antica
Pompeii
Saepinum
Villa Adriana
Vitruvius
From the little text that still remains from the Roman period, there is one name that crops up more than any other in the field of architecture. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio or more simply, Vitruvius, was the author of the architectural treatise called De Architectura: a guide to engineering and construction techniques written in the 1st century BC.
His architectural principles that buildings should be imbued with three attributes: firmitas (strength) utilitas (utility) and venustas (beauty) became the cornerstone of future Roman architecture. The most famous reference to Vitruvius in popular culture is Leonardo da Vinci's drawing of the Vitruvian Man, based upon Vitruvius' study of proportion.
From the little text that still remains from the Roman period, there is one name that crops up more than any other in the field of architecture. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio or more simply, Vitruvius, was the author of the architectural treatise called De Architectura: a guide to engineering and construction techniques written in the 1st century BC.
His architectural principles that buildings should be imbued with three attributes: firmitas (strength) utilitas (utility) and venustas (beauty) became the cornerstone of future Roman architecture. The most famous reference to Vitruvius in popular culture is Leonardo da Vinci's drawing of the Vitruvian Man, based upon Vitruvius' study of proportion.
What is a basilica?
The basilica was one of the most important types of building in Ancient Roman architecture. Although we now associate the word basilica with large churches and cathedrals, its original purpose was as a multi-functional municipal building. Original basilicas typically took the form of a rectangular base lined on each side with colonnades (rows of columns) and a semi-circular apse at the opposite end to the entrance. In modern times, the word basilica is awarded by the Holy See to large churches or cathedrals of notable importance.
The basilica was one of the most important types of building in Ancient Roman architecture. Although we now associate the word basilica with large churches and cathedrals, its original purpose was as a multi-functional municipal building. Original basilicas typically took the form of a rectangular base lined on each side with colonnades (rows of columns) and a semi-circular apse at the opposite end to the entrance. In modern times, the word basilica is awarded by the Holy See to large churches or cathedrals of notable importance.
What's the difference between a theatre and an amphitheatre?
There's always a lot of confusion between the words theatre and amphitheatre but they are significantly different. A typical Roman theatre was semi-circular in shape and a place where theatrical performances were staged. The word amphitheatre comes from two Greek words: amphi which means "on both sides" and theatron (theatre). An amphitheatre is therefore a theatre that has two sides, unlike the Roman theatre which has just one, usually semi-circular. Famous amphitheatres include the Colosseum in Rome and the Verona Arena. These were often large stadia where gladiators fought and unfortunate criminals were put to death, often in hopeless fights against wild animals.
There's always a lot of confusion between the words theatre and amphitheatre but they are significantly different. A typical Roman theatre was semi-circular in shape and a place where theatrical performances were staged. The word amphitheatre comes from two Greek words: amphi which means "on both sides" and theatron (theatre). An amphitheatre is therefore a theatre that has two sides, unlike the Roman theatre which has just one, usually semi-circular. Famous amphitheatres include the Colosseum in Rome and the Verona Arena. These were often large stadia where gladiators fought and unfortunate criminals were put to death, often in hopeless fights against wild animals.
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